Applied Chemical Engineering

Batch adsorption of methyl orange dye from solutions using nano-magnetic Fe/Mn-modified activated carbon derived from lignocellulosic biomass: Kinetics and thermodynamics

Asraa Awad Ali Hashim

Department of Chemistry, College of Education, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Diwaniyah, 54004,Iraq

Nahla Shakir Salman

Department of Chemistry, College of Education, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Diwaniyah, 54004,Iraq

DOI: https://doi.org/10.59429/ace.v8i2.5681

Keywords: Adsorption; activated carbon; agricultural waste; batch adsorption; Fe/Mn nanocomposite; lignocellulosic biomass; methyl orange; wastewater treatment

---

Abstract

Recently, water pollution with dyes is one of the most serious problems and the most dangerous to human health and living organisms. This study involves the synthesis of magnetic nano form of Fe-Mn binary oxide modified biomass derived of agricultural waste commercial (wood shavings) as a raw material. Magnetic nanoparticles were prepared from activated carbon obtained from lignocellulose through chemical activation of wood shavings using NaOH incorporated with (FeCl3.6H2O), ferrous sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O) and potassium permanganate (KMnO4) for effective removal of MO dye from aqueous solutions in a batch processes. This material was characterized through several advanced techniques such as Fourier transform infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM), Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), Energy -dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), Transmission electron Microscopy (TEM) and Vibration sample magnetometer (VSM). These analysis techniques highlighted the successful synthesis of magnetic nanocomposite with a porous structure. Batch adsorption experiments were studied by including contact time, adsorbent dose, pH, and temperature to determine the optimal conditions for maximum dye removal efficiency. The developed LB-Fe/Mn nanocomposite demonstrated excellent removal efficiency (98.16%) for methyl orange, outperforming many current advanced materials. Thermodynamic study revealed the endothermic and spontaneous nature of studied process. Adsorption kinetics followed a pseudo-second-order model (R² = 0.9676), while Freundlich (R² = 0.9544) and Temkin (R² = 0.9545) isotherms best described the equilibrium data, indicating multilayer adsorption on heterogeneous surfaces with abundant binding sites.

---

References

[1]. Zolkefli, N., et al., A review of current and emerging approaches for water pollution monitoring. 2020. 12(12): p. 3417.

[2]. Alprol, A.E., M.S. Gaballah, and M.A.J.R.s.i.m.s. Hassaan, Micro and Nanoplastics analysis: Focus on their classification, sources, and impacts in marine environment. 2021. 42: p. 101625.

[3]. Abualnaja, K.M., et al., Studying the adsorptive behavior of poly (acrylonitrile-co-styrene) and carbon nanotubes (nanocomposites) impregnated with adsorbent materials towards methyl orange dye. 2021. 11(5): p. 1144.

[4]. Istratie, R., et al., Single and simultaneous adsorption of methyl orange and phenol onto magnetic iron oxide/carbon nanocomposites. 2019. 12(8): p. 3704-3722.

[5]. Kadirvelu, K., C. Faur-Brasquet, and P.L.J.L. Cloirec, Removal of Cu (II), Pb (II), and Ni (II) by adsorption onto activated carbon cloths. 2000. 16(22): p. 8404-8409.

[6]. Mohan, D. and C.U.J.J.o.h.m. Pittman Jr, Activated carbons and low cost adsorbents for remediation of tri-and hexavalent chromium from water. 2006. 137(2): p. 762-811.

[7]. Mohan, D., K.P. Singh, and V.K.J.J.o.h.m. Singh, Trivalent chromium removal from wastewater using low cost activated carbon derived from agricultural waste material and activated carbon fabric cloth. 2006. 135(1-3): p. 280-295.

[8]. Mohan, D. and K.P.J.W.r. Singh, Single-and multi-component adsorption of cadmium and zinc using activated carbon derived from bagasse—an agricultural waste. 2002. 36(9): p. 2304-2318.

[9]. Albo Hay Allah, M.A., H.A.J.B.C. Alshamsi, and Biorefinery, Green synthesis of ZnO NPs using Pontederia crassipes leaf extract: characterization, their adsorption behavior and anti-cancer property. 2024. 14(9): p. 10487-10500.

[10]. Ahmed, T., et al., Climate change, water quality and water-related challenges: a review with focus on Pakistan. 2020. 17(22): p. 8518.

[11]. Rahman, M.M., et al., Production of functionalized clay-CNC based biopolymeric nanocomposite from agro-waste biomass for bulky industrial wastewater treatment via continuous column adsorption study with mathematical modeling: A critical review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2025: p. 145883.

[12]. Rahman, M.M., et al., Fabrication of CNC-AC bionanosorbents from the residual mass of Magnolia champaca l. Bark after methanol extraction for wastewater treatment: Continuous column adsorption study. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 2024. 22: p. 101015.

[13]. Pioli, R.M., et al., Comparison of the effect of N-methyl and N-aryl groups on the hydrolytic stability and electronic properties of betalain dyes. 2020. 183: p. 108609.

[14]. Mohammed, N., et al., Selective adsorption and separation of organic dyes using functionalized cellulose nanocrystals. 2021. 417: p. 129237.

[15]. Wang, H., et al., Effective adsorption of dyes on an activated carbon prepared from carboxymethyl cellulose: Experiments, characterization and advanced modelling. 2021. 417: p. 128116.

[16]. Gupta, V.K.J.J.o.e.m., Application of low-cost adsorbents for dye removal–a review. 2009. 90(8): p. 2313-2342.

[17]. Wagner, M., et al., Removal of Congo red from aqueous solutions at hardened cement paste surfaces. 2020. 7: p. 567130.

[18]. Karim, A.N. and L.S. Jasim, Synthesis and characterization of poly (CH/AA-co-AM) composite: Adsorption and thermodynamic studies of benzocaine on from aqueous solutions. International Journal of Drug Delivery Technology, 2019. 9(4): p. 558-562.

[19]. Zeeshan, M., et al., Investigating the Interactions between Dyes and Porous/Composite Materials: A Comprehensive Study. Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment, 2025: p. 100217.

[20]. Abdulhusain, Z.H., L.S. Jasim, and M. Batool, Azur C Dye Removal using GO/P(CMC-Co-Am) Nanocomposite: Adsorption and Kinetic Studies. Journal of Nanostructures, 2024. 14(4): p. 1225-1238.

[21]. Jamel, H.O., et al., Adsorption of Rhodamine B dye from solution using 3-((1-(4-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)amino)phenyl)ethylidene)amino)phenol (BIAPEHB)/ P(AA-co-AM) composite. Desalination and Water Treatment, 2025. 321.

[22]. Majeed, H.J., et al., Synthesis and application of novel sodium carboxy methyl cellulose-g-poly acrylic acid carbon dots hydrogel nanocomposite (NaCMC-g-PAAc/ CDs) for adsorptive removal of malachite green dye. Desalination and Water Treatment, 2024. 320.

[23]. Bafana, A., S.S. Devi, and T.J.E.R. Chakrabarti, Azo dyes: past, present and the future. 2011. 19(NA): p. 350-371.

[24]. Hosseini, M., et al., Investigations of nickel silicate for degradation of water-soluble organic pollutants. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2024. 61: p. 307-315.

[25]. Radhy, N.D. and L.S. Jasim, A novel economical friendly treatment approach: Composite hydrogels. Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2021. 19(5): p. 841-852.

[26]. Alyasi, H., H. Mackey, and G.J.M. McKay, Adsorption of methyl orange from water using chitosan bead-like materials. 2023. 28(18): p. 6561.

[27]. Bahadi, S.A., et al., Optimization of methyl orange adsorption on MgFeAl-LTH through the manipulation of solution chemistry and synthesis conditions. 2024. 7(3): p. 959-971.

[28]. Sun, S.-F., et al., Facile construction of lignin-based network composite hydrogel for efficient adsorption of methylene blue from wastewater. 2023. 253: p. 126688.

[29]. Ai, L., et al., Adsorption of methyl orange from aqueous solution on hydrothermal synthesized Mg–Al layered double hydroxide. 2011. 56(11): p. 4217-4225.

[30]. Ghzal, Q., T. Javed, and M. Batool, Potential of easily prepared low-cost rice husk biochar and burnt clay composite for the removal of methylene blue dye from contaminated water. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 2023. 9(11): p. 2925-2941.

[31]. Kanwal, F., et al., Enhanced dye photodegradation through ZnO and ZnO-based photocatalysts doped with selective transition metals: a review. Environmental Technology Reviews, 2024. 13(1): p. 754-793.

[32]. Shah, A., et al., The effect of dose, settling time, shelf life, storage temperature and extractant on Moringa oleifera Lam. protein coagulation efficiency. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 2024. 21: p. 100919.

[33]. Shah, A., et al., Adsorptive removal of arsenic from drinking water using KOH-modified sewage sludge-derived biochar. Cleaner Water, 2024. 2: p. 100022.

[34]. Rengaraj, S., et al., Kinetics of removal of chromium from water and electronic process wastewater by ion exchange resins: 1200H, 1500H and IRN97H. 2003. 102(2-3): p. 257-275.

[35]. Huang, R., et al., Adsorption of methyl orange onto protonated cross-linked chitosan. 2017. 10(1): p. 24-32.

[36]. Kant, R.J.J.o.W.R. and Protection, Adsorption of dye eosin from an aqueous solution on two different samples of activated carbon by static batch method. 2012. 4(2): p. 93-98.

[37]. Rita Kant, R.K., Adsorption of dye Eosin from an aqueous solution on two different samples of activated carbon by static batch method. 2012.

[38]. Attia, H.G.J.J.o.E. and S. Development, Decolorization of direct blue dye by electrocoagulation process. 2013. 17(1): p. 171-181.

[39]. Taher, A.M., et al., Applications of Nano Composites for Heavy Metal Removal from Water by Adsorption: Mini Review. Journal of Nanostructures, 2024. 14(4): p. 1239-1251.

[40]. Yagub, M.T., et al., Dye and its removal from aqueous solution by adsorption: a review. 2014. 209: p. 172-184.

[41]. Barman, P., R. Kadam, and A.J.E.M. Kumar, Lignin-based adsorbent for effective removal of toxic heavy metals from wastewater. 2022. 5(3): p. 923-943.

[42]. Lalvani, S., A. Hubner, and T.J.E.s. Wiltowski, Chromium adsorption by lignin. 2000. 22(1): p. 45-56.

[43]. Mohan, D., et al., Single, binary and multi-component adsorption of copper and cadmium from aqueous solutions on Kraft lignin—a biosorbent. 2006. 297(2): p. 489-504.

[44]. Din, M.I., S. Ashraf, and A.J.S.p. Intisar, Comparative study of different activation treatments for the preparation of activated carbon: a mini-review. 2017. 100(3): p. 299-312.

[45]. Crist, R.H., et al., Heavy metal uptake by lignin: comparison of biotic ligand models with an ion-exchange process. 2002. 36(7): p. 1485-1490.

[46]. Crist, R.H., et al., Use of a novel formulation of kraft lignin for toxic metal removal from process waters. 2005. 39(7): p. 1535-1545.

[47]. Demirbas, A.J.J.o.h.m., Adsorption of lead and cadmium ions in aqueous solutions onto modified lignin from alkali glycerol delignication. 2004. 109(1-3): p. 221-226.

[48]. Celik, A. and A.J.E.s. Demirbaş, Removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions via adsorption onto modified lignin from pulping wastes. 2005. 27(12): p. 1167-1177.

[49]. Fadhil, A.B., M.M.J.A.J.f.S. Deyab, and Engineering, Conversion of some fruit stones and shells into activated carbons. 2008. 33.

[50]. Shahmohammadi-Kalalagh, S., et al., Isotherm and kinetic studies on adsorption of Pb, Zn and Cu by kaolinite. 2011. 9(2): p. 243-255.

[51]. Saadallah, K., et al., Potential of the Algerian pine tree bark for the adsorptive removal of methylene blue dye: Kinetics, isotherm and mechanism study. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2024: p. 1-19.

[52]. Javed, T., et al., Investigating the adsorption potential of coconut coir as an economical adsorbent for decontamination of lanthanum ion from aqueous solution. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2024.

[53]. Arshad, R., T. Javed, and A. Thumma, Exploring the efficiency of sodium alginate beads and Cedrus deodara sawdust for adsorptive removal of crystal violet dye. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2024. 45(12): p. 2330-2343.

[54]. Guo, X., S. Zhang, and X.-q.J.J.o.h.m. Shan, Adsorption of metal ions on lignin. 2008. 151(1): p. 134-142.

[55]. Guo XueYan, G.X., Z.S. Zhang ShuZhen, and S.X. Shan XiaoQuan, Adsorption of metal ions on lignin. 2008.

[56]. Ghaffar, S.H., M.J.B. Fan, and bioenergy, Structural analysis for lignin characteristics in biomass straw. 2013. 57: p. 264-279.

[57]. Kini, M.S., et al., Statistical analysis of Congo Red dye removal using sawdust activated carbon. 2017. 12(19): p. 8788-8804.

[58]. Hao, Y.S., et al. A review of production, properties and application in scavenging of dyes of biochar. in Third International Conference on Separation Technology 2020 (ICoST 2020). 2020. Atlantis Press.

[59]. Katika, R.M., et al., Perspectives of Biochar-Aided Advanced Oxidation Processes for the Remediation of Emerging Dyeing Contaminants. 2024.

[60]. Wu, W., et al., The role of lignin structure on cellulase adsorption and enzymatic hydrolysis. 2023. 3(1): p. 96-107.

[61]. Sun, Y., et al., Facile synthesis of Fe-modified lignin-based biochar for ultra-fast adsorption of methylene blue: Selective adsorption and mechanism studies. 2022. 344: p. 126186.

[62]. Collivignarelli, M.C., et al., Preparation and modification of biochar derived from agricultural waste for metal adsorption from urban wastewater. 2024. 16(5): p. 698.

[63]. Abd Alhussein, M.M. and N.S.J.J.o.N. Salman, Preparation of Nano Lignin–Based Activated Carbon Depending on Ratio Impregnation of K2CO3, Activation Time and Activation Temperature on Yield for Congo Red Dye Adsorption. 2024. 14(3): p. 857-874.

[64]. da Silva Lacerda, V., et al., Rhodamine B removal with activated carbons obtained from lignocellulosic waste. 2015. 155: p. 67-76.

[65]. Aziz, S., et al., Green technology: synthesis of iron-modified biochar derived from pine cones to remove azithromycin and ciprofloxacin from water. 2024. 12: p. 1353267.

[66]. Yu, H., et al., Synthesis of a lignin-Fe/Mn binary oxide blend nanocomposite and its adsorption capacity for methylene blue. 2021. 6(26): p. 16837-16846.

[67]. Javed, T., et al., Sustainable Dye Wastewater Treatment: A Review of Effective Strategies and Future Directions. Physical Chemistry Research, 2025.

[68]. Urooj, H., et al., Adsorption of crystal violet dye from wastewater on Phyllanthus emblica fruit (PEF) powder: kinetic and thermodynamic. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 2024. 104(19): p. 7474-7499.

[69]. Bukhari, A., T. Javed, and M.N. Haider, Adsorptive exclusion of crystal violet dye from wastewater by using fish scales as an adsorbent. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2023. 44(11): p. 2081-2092.

[70]. Imran, M.S., et al., Sequestration of crystal violet dye from wastewater using low-cost coconut husk as a potential adsorbent. Water Science and Technology, 2022. 85(8): p. 2295-2317.

[71]. Zainal, N.H., et al., Carbonisation-activation of oil palm kernel shell to produce activated carbon and methylene blue adsorption kinetics. 2018. 30(3): p. 495-502.

[72]. Geçgel, Ü., et al., Adsorption of cationic dyes on activated carbon obtained from waste Elaeagnus stone. 2016. 34(9-10): p. 512-525.

[73]. Zghair, A.N., et al., Synthesis, characterization and adsorption properties of azo-functionalized polymeric hydrogels for R6G dye removal from water. Applied Chemical Engineering, 2025. 8(1).

[74]. Khan, S.A., et al., Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: fundamentals and application in functional groups and nanomaterials characterization. 2018: p. 317-344.

[75]. Zaitan, H. and T.J.C.R.C. Chafik, FTIR determination of adsorption characteristics for volatile organic compounds removal on diatomite mineral compared to commercial silica. 2005. 8(9-10): p. 1701-1708.

[76]. Batool, M., et al., Exploring the usability of Cedrus deodara sawdust for decontamination of wastewater containing crystal violet dye. 2021. 224: p. 433-448.

[77]. Hossain, M.I., et al., Preparation and characterization of crystalline nanocellulose from keya (Pandanus tectorius) L. fiber as potential reinforcement in sustainable bionanocomposite: A waste to wealth scheme. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications, 2024. 8: p. 100600.

[78]. Rahman, M.M., et al., Production of cellulose nanocrystals from the waste banana (M. Oranta) tree rachis fiber as a reinforcement to fabricate useful bionanocomposite. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications, 2024. 8: p. 100607.

[79]. Ibarra, D., et al., Chemical characterization of residual lignins from eucalypt paper pulps. 2005. 74(1-2): p. 116-122.

[80]. Fang, L., et al., Preparation of lignin-based magnetic adsorbent from kraft lignin for adsorbing the Congo red. 2021. 9: p. 691528.

[81]. Tejado, A., et al., Physico-chemical characterization of lignins from different sources for use in phenol–formaldehyde resin synthesis. 2007. 98(8): p. 1655-1663.

[82]. Mahdi, M.A., et al., Tailoring the innovative Lu2CrMnO6 double perovskite nanostructure as an efficient electrode materials for electrochemical hydrogen storage application. Journal of Energy Storage, 2024. 88.

[83]. Kianipour, S., et al., The synthesis of the P/N-type NdCoO3/g-C3N4 nano-heterojunction as a high-performance photocatalyst for the enhanced photocatalytic degradation of pollutants under visible-light irradiation. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 2022. 15(6).

[84]. Al-Nayili, A. and W.A.J.R.o.C.I. Alhaidry, Batch to continuous photocatalytic degradation of phenol using nitrogen-rich g-C3N4 nanocomposites. 2023. 49(10): p. 4239-4255.

[85]. Zhong, M., Y.-T. Liu, and X.-M.J.J.o.M.C.B. Xie, Self-healable, super tough graphene oxide–poly (acrylic acid) nanocomposite hydrogels facilitated by dual cross-linking effects through dynamic ionic interactions. 2015. 3(19): p. 4001-4008.

[86]. Dhayal, M., et al., Strategies to prepare TiO2 thin films, doped with transition metal ions, that exhibit specific physicochemical properties to support osteoblast cell adhesion and proliferation. 2014. 37: p. 99-107.

[87]. Halysh, V., et al., Structural characterization of by-product lignins from organosolv rapeseed straw pulping and their application as biosorbents. 2022. 29(12): p. 510.

[88]. Mhammed Alzayd, A.A., et al. A new adsorption material based GO/PVP/AAc composite hydrogel characterization, study kinetic and thermodynamic to removal Atenolol drug from wast water. in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2020.

[89]. Razavi, F.S., et al., Fabrication and design of four-component Bi2S3/CuFe2O4/CuO/Cu2O nanocomposite as new active materials for high performance electrochemical hydrogen storage application. Journal of Energy Storage, 2024. 94.

[90]. AL-Abayechi, M.M.H., A. Al-nayili, and A.A.J.I.C.C. Balakit, Green synthesis of 1, 3-Thiazolidin-4-ones derivatives by using acid-activated montmorillonite as catalyst. 2024. 161: p. 112076.

[91]. Nirmaladevi, S., N.J.D. Palanisamy, and W. Treatment, A comparative study of the removal of cationic and anionic dyes from aqueous solutions using biochar as an adsorbent. 2020. 175: p. 282-292.

[92]. Jasim, L.S., et al. Effective adsorptive removal of riboflavin (RF) over activated carbon. in AIP Conference Proceedings. 2022. AIP Publishing.

[93]. Mojar Alshamusi, Q.K., et al., Adsorption of crystal violate (CV) dye in aqueous solutions by using P (PVP-co-AAm)/GO composite as (eco-healthy adsorbate surface): characterization and thermodynamics studies. 2021. 21.

[94]. Kmal, R.Q., et al., Removal of Toxic Congo Red Dye from Aqueous Solution Using a Graphene Oxide/Poly (Acrylamide-Acrylic acid) Hydrogel: Characterization, Kinetics and Thermodynamics Studies. 2022. 12(4).

[95]. Ponomarev, N., et al., Lignin-based magnesium hydroxide nanocomposite. Synthesis and application for the removal of potentially toxic metals from aqueous solution. 2019. 2(9): p. 5492-5503.

[96]. Jalal, N.M., et al. The effect of sulfonation reaction time on polystyrene electrospun membranes as polymer electrolyte. in AIP Conference Proceedings. 2020. AIP Publishing.

[97]. Adegoke, H., et al., Thermodynamic studies on adsorption of lead (II) Ion from aqueous solution using magnetite, activated carbon and composites. 2017. 21(3): p. 440-452.

[98]. Osman, A.I., et al., Production and characterisation of activated carbon and carbon nanotubes from potato peel waste and their application in heavy metal removal. 2019. 26: p. 37228-37241.

[99]. Han, W., et al., Adsorption of bisphenol A on lignin: effects of solution chemistry. 2012. 9: p. 543-548.

[100]. Zhu, Z., et al., Effect of temperature on methylene blue removal with novel 2D-Magnetism titanium carbide. 2019. 280: p. 120989.

[101]. Benjedim, S., et al., Synthesis of magnetic adsorbents based carbon highly efficient and stable for use in the removal of Pb (II) and Cd (II) in aqueous solution. 2021. 14(20): p. 6134.

[102]. AL-Abayechi, M.M.H., A. Al-nayili, and A.A.J.R.o.C.I. Balakit, Montmorillonite clay modified by CuFe2O4 nanoparticles, an efficient heterogeneous catalyst for the solvent-free microwave-assisted synthesis of 1, 3-thiazolidin-4-ones. 2024. 50(4): p. 1541-1556.

[103]. Widianto, E., et al. Preparation of graphene oxide/poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxytriophene): Poly (styrene sulfonate)(PEDOT: PSS) electrospun nanofibers. in AIP Conference Proceedings. 2016. AIP Publishing.

[104]. Efelina, V., et al. Preparation of graphene oxide/poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxytriophene): Poly (styrene sulfonate)(PEDOT: PSS) electrospun nanofibers. in AIP Conference Proceedings. 2016. AIP Publishing.

[105]. Paranthaman, V., et al., Investigation on the performance of reduced graphene oxide as counter electrode in dye sensitized solar cell applications. 2018. 215(18): p. 1800298.

[106]. Sun, Y., et al., Synthesis of novel lignosulfonate-modified graphene hydrogel for ultrahigh adsorption capacity of Cr (VI) from wastewater. 2021. 295: p. 126406.

[107]. Lahti, R., et al., Physico-chemical properties and use of waste biomass-derived activated carbons. 2017.

[108]. Salman, N.S., H.A.J.J.o.P. Alshamsi, and t. Environment, Synthesis of sulfonated polystyrene-based porous activated carbon for organic dyes removal from aqueous solutions. 2022. 30(12): p. 5100-5118.

[109]. Al-Nayili, A. and S.A.J.J.o.C.S. Haimd, Design of a new ZnCo2O4 nanoparticles/nitrogen-rich g-C3N4 sheet with improved photocatalytic activity under visible light. 2024. 35(1): p. 341-358.

[110]. Fromm, J., et al., Lignin distribution in wood cell walls determined by TEM and backscattered SEM techniques. 2003. 143(1): p. 77-84.

[111]. Kayiwa, R., et al., Mesoporous activated carbon yielded from pre-leached cassava peels. 2021. 8(1): p. 53.

[112]. Allah, M.A.A.H., H.K. Ibrahim, and A.A.J.J.o.M.L. Abdulridha, Eco-friendly synthesis of ZnO/chitosan nanocomposite: Detailed characterization, DFT study, docking study, adsorption kinetics, thermodynamic analysis and antioxidant properties. 2025. 425: p. 127216.

[113]. MUSTAFA, Z., Y. HİKMET, and C. ZEKİ, Thermal, Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Cellulose/Lignin Nanocomposites.

[114]. Makhado, E. and M.J.J.F.i.c. Hato, Preparation and characterization of sodium alginate-based oxidized multi-walled carbon nanotubes hydrogel nanocomposite and its adsorption behaviour for methylene blue dye. 2021. 9: p. 576913.

[115]. May, C. and A.J.W.R. Moussa, Chemical and structural analysis of lignocellulosic biomass of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus (DISs) and Stipa tenacissima. 2018. 63: p. 699-712.

[116]. Zhang, J., et al., Improving lignocellulose thermal stability by chemical modification with boric acid for incorporating into polyamide. 2020. 191: p. 108589.

[117]. Zhao, W., et al., Monolayer graphene chemiresistive biosensor for rapid bacteria detection in a microchannel. 2020. 2(1): p. 100004.

[118]. Raghavan, N., S. Thangavel, and G.J.M.S.i.S.P. Venugopal, Enhanced photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by reduced graphene-oxide/titanium dioxide/zinc oxide ternary nanocomposites. 2015. 30: p. 321-329.

[119]. Petrie, F.A., et al., Facile fabrication and characterization of kraft lignin@ Fe3O4 nanocomposites using pH driven precipitation: Effects on increasing lignin content. 2021. 181: p. 313-321.

[120]. Elewa, A.M., et al., Chemically activated carbon based on biomass for adsorption of Fe (III) and Mn (II) ions from aqueous solution. 2023. 16(3): p. 1251.

[121]. Hambisa, A.A., et al., Adsorption studies of methyl orange dye removal from aqueous solution using Anchote peel-based agricultural waste adsorbent. 2023. 13(1): p. 24.

[122]. Hu, L., et al., Adsorption behavior of dyes from an aqueous solution onto composite magnetic lignin adsorbent. 2020. 246: p. 125757.

[123]. Abbas, M., M.J.P.s. Trari, and E. protection, Kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic study on the removal of Congo Red from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto apricot stone. 2015. 98: p. 424-436.

[124]. Hanum, L., et al., The adsorption capacity of methylene blue by activated carbon immobilized yarn. 2022. 15(03): p. 1965-1974.

[125]. Abdu, M., et al., The development of Giant reed biochar for adsorption of Basic Blue 41 and Eriochrome Black T. azo dyes from wastewater. 2024. 14(1): p. 18320.

[126]. Yang, J., et al. Study on adsorption of chromium (VI) by activated carbon from cassava sludge. in IOP conference series: earth and environmental science. 2018. IOP Publishing.

[127]. Banerjee, S. and M.J.A.J.o.C. Chattopadhyaya, Adsorption characteristics for the removal of a toxic dye, tartrazine from aqueous solutions by a low cost agricultural by-product. 2017. 10: p. S1629-S1638.

[128]. Wang, P., T. Yan, and L.J.B. Wang, Removal of Congo red from aqueous solution using magnetic chitosan composite microparticles. 2013. 8(4): p. 6026-6043.

[129]. Wang Peng, W.P., Y.T. Yan TingGuo, and W.L. Wang LiJuan, Removal of Congo red from aqueous solution using magnetic chitosan composite microparticles. 2013.

[130]. Alam, M.S., R. Khanom, and M.A.J.A.J.o.E.P. Rahman, Removal of Congo red dye from industrial wastewater by untreated sawdust. 2015. 4(5): p. 207.

[131]. Abbas, A., et al., Isothermal Evaluation of Chemical Modification of Ricinus communis Stem Used for Adsorptive Removal of Brilliant Blue FCF Dye from Water. 2013. 25(16).

[132]. Aadil Abbas, A.A., et al., Isothermal evaluation of chemical modification of Ricinus communis stem used for adsorptive removal of Brilliant blue FCF dye from water. 2013.

[133]. Vimonses, V., et al., Adsorption of congo red by three Australian kaolins. 2009. 43(3-4): p. 465-472.

[134]. Bedmohata, M., et al., Adsorption capacity of activated carbon prepared by chemical activation of lignin for the removal of methylene blue dye. 2015. 2(8): p. 1-13.

[135]. Liu, Z. and Y.J.J.o.C. Wei, K2CO3‐Activated Pomelo Peels as a High‐Performance Adsorbent for Removal of Cu (II): Preparation, Characterization, and Adsorption Studies. 2021. 2021(1): p. 9940577.

[136]. Murcia-Salvador, A., et al., Adsorption of Direct Blue 78 using chitosan and cyclodextrins as adsorbents. 2019. 11(6): p. 1003.

[137]. Rezaei, H., A. Razavi, and A.J.E.R.R. Shahbazi, Removal of Congo red from aqueous solutions using nano-chitosan. 2017. 5(1): p. 25-34.

[138]. N. Zghair, A., et al., Synthesis, characterization and adsorption properties of azo-functionalized polymeric hydrogels for R6G dye removal from water. Applied Chemical Engineering, 2025. 8(1): p. ACE-5604.

[139]. Javed, T., et al., Batch adsorption study of Congo Red dye using unmodified Azadirachta indica leaves: isotherms and kinetics. Water Practice & Technology, 2024. 19(2): p. 546-566.

[140]. Salmam, N.S., H.K. Dakheel, and A.J.J.E.J.o.C. Kadhim, Study of thrmodynamic values in different temperature from partition coefficient for some organic acids immiscible di-solvents mixtures. 2021. 64(12): p. 7417-7420.

[141]. Kılıç, M., A.S.K.J.B.I.J.o.S. Janabi, and T. Research, Investigation of dyes adsorption with activated carbon obtained from Cordia myxa. 2017. 1(2): p. 87-104.

[142]. Jedynak, K., et al., Mesoporous carbons as adsorbents to removal of methyl orange (anionic dye) and methylene blue (cationic dye) from aqueous solutions. 2021. 220: p. 363-379.

[143]. Shayesteh, H., et al., Trimethylamine functionalized clay for highly efficient removal of diclofenac from contaminated water: experiments and theoretical calculations. 2020. 20: p. 100615.

[144]. Sun, Y., et al., Removal of Pollutantswith Activated Carbon Produced from K2CO3 Activation of Lignin From Reed Black Liquors. 2006. 20(4): p. 429-435.

[145]. Shah, A., et al., Sequential novel use of Moringa oleifera Lam., biochar, and sand to remove turbidity, E. coli, and heavy metals from drinking water. Cleaner Water, 2024. 2: p. 100050.

[146]. Joshi, S. and B.P.J.J.o.t.I.o.E. Pokharel, Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from lapsi (Choerospondias axillaris) seed stone by chemical activation with potassium hydroxide. 2013. 9(1): p. 79-88.

[147]. Tekin, B. and U.J.G.U.J.o.S. Açıkel, Adsorption isotherms for removal of heavy metal ions (copper and nickel) from aqueous solutions in single and binary adsorption processes. 2022. 36(2): p. 495-509.

[148]. Nunes, N., M.T. Santos, and A.J.J.o.t.B.C.S. Martins, Low cost modified biochars from peanut shells for the removal of textile dyes. 2023. 34(6): p. 885-893.

[149]. Ghane, S., et al., Insights into the impacts of synthesis parameters on lignin-based activated carbon and its application for: methylene blue adsorption. 2023. 57(1): p. 111-132.

[150]. Wanyonyi, W.C., J.M. Onyari, and P.M.J.E.P. Shiundu, Adsorption of Congo red dye from aqueous solutions using roots of Eichhornia crassipes: kinetic and equilibrium studies. 2014. 50: p. 862-869.

[151]. Abazli, H., H. Jneidi, and S.J.B.S.J. Hatem, Kinetic, isotherm and thermodynamic studies on the ciprofloxacin adsorption from aqueous solution using aleppo bentonite. 2022. 19(3): p. 0680-0680.

[152]. Pascu, D.-E., et al., Iron and manganese removal from drinking water. 2016. 6(1): p. 47-55.

[153]. Eskandarian, L., et al., Evaluation of adsorption characteristics of multiwalled carbon nanotubes modified by a poly (propylene imine) dendrimer in single and multiple dye solutions: isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamics. 2014. 59(2): p. 444-454.

[154]. Nechifor, G., et al., Comparative study of Temkin and Flory-huggins isotherms for adsorption of phosphate anion on membranes. 2015. 77(2): p. 63-72.

[155]. Dada, A., et al., Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin–Radushkevich isotherms studies of equilibrium sorption of Zn2+ unto phosphoric acid modified rice husk. 2012. 3(1): p. 38-45.

[156]. Ao, D., L. AP, and O.J.I.J.o.A.C. AM, Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin–Radushkevich isotherms studies of equilibrium sorption of Zn 2+ unto phosphoric acid modified rice husk. 2012. 3(1): p. 38-45.

[157]. Azhar-ul-Haq, M., et al., Adsorptive removal of hazardous crystal violet dye onto banana peel powder: equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2022: p. 1-16.

[158]. Priyadarshini, B., et al. Kinetics, Thermodynamics and Isotherm studies on Adsorption of Eriochrome Black-T from aqueous solution using Rutile TiO2. in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2018. IOP Publishing.

[159]. Khan, A., et al., Improvement of the adsorption efficiency of rice husk ash for crystal violet dye removal from aqueous medium. 2022. 65(131): p. 427-435.

[160]. Cotoruelo, L.M., et al., Adsorbent ability of lignin-based activated carbons for the removal of p-nitrophenol from aqueous solutions. 2012. 184: p. 176-183.

[161]. Massoud, M., et al., Removal of Cadmium (II) from aqueous solutions onto Dodonaeae Viscose Leg powder using a green process: Isotherms, Kinetics and Thermodynamics. 2019. 10(1): p. 10-16.

[162]. Barakan, S., et al., Thermodynamic, kinetic and equilibrium isotherm studies of As (V) adsorption by Fe (III)-impregnated bentonite. 2020. 22: p. 5273-5295.

[163]. Sharma, R., et al., Kinetics and adsorption studies of mercury and lead by ceria nanoparticles entrapped in tamarind powder. 2018. 3(11): p. 14606-14619.

[164]. Tan, K. and B.J.J.o.t.T.I.o.C.E. Hameed, Insight into the adsorption kinetics models for the removal of contaminants from aqueous solutions. 2017. 74: p. 25-48.

[165]. Liu, Y., et al., Simultaneous removal of methyl orange and Cr (VI) using polyethyleneimine-modified corncob-derived carbon material. 2020. 15(4): p. 7342.

[166]. Rouf, S., M. Nagapadma, and R.R.J.I.J.E.R.A. Rao, Removal of harmful textile dye congo red from aqueous solution using chitosan and chitosan beads modified with CTAB. 2015. 5(3): p. 75-82.

[167]. Do, P.M.T., et al., Removal of Anions PO 4 3-and Methyl Orange Using Fe-Modified Biochar Derived from Rice Straw. 2023. 42(3).