Applied Chemical Engineering

Advances in the synthesis and applications of hybrid nanofluids: Supporting SDG 7.3 on energy efficiency

Vijay P Ate

Mechanical Engineering Department, Kavikulguru Institute of Technology and Science, Ramtek. Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University Nagpur. 440033, India

Pramod B Lanjewar

Mechanical Engineering Department, St Vincent Pallotti College of Engineering and Technology, Nagpur, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University Nagpur,440033, India

Sagar D Shelare

Mechanical Engineering Department, Priyadarshani College of Engineering Nagpur, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University. Nagpur, 440033, India

Prateek D. Malwe

Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Technology, Pimpri, Pune,411018, India

Choon Kit Chan

Faculty of Engineering and Quantity Surveying, INTI International University, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan 71800, Malaysia

Subhav Singh

Centre for Research and Development, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh,174103, India. Division of research and development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, 144411, India.

Deekshant Varshney

Centre of Research Impact and Outcome, Chitkara University, Rajpura Punjab, 140417, India. Division of Research & innovation, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, 248007,India.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.59429/ace.v8i2.5684

---

Abstract

Nanofluids with advanced properties (also known as hybrid nanofluids), which form systems based on a combination of two or more nanoparticles (NPs dispersed in ordinary fluids), have been considered as a revolutionary solution to improve thermal efficiency in a wide range of industrial processes, and ultimately contribute to energy efficiency. These materials exhibit enhanced performance characteristics compared to traditional single-phase nanomaterials, owing to synergistic interactions between their components. Synthesis techniques such as sol-gel processing, hydrothermal methods, and chemical vapor deposition are extensively explored, each offering specific advantages in terms of particle dispersion, morphology control, and structural stability. The current critical review examines important synthesis techniques, delineating characteristics, and real-existing applications of the hybrid nanofluids and the ability of mixing them to increase the thermal conductivity and, subsequently, enhance energy conservation in heat exchangers and cooling devices. New trends confirm that the process of optimizing nanofluid arrangements can directly lead to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7.3 by enhancing energy efficiency globally. At the same time, it critically evaluates the existing barriers such as stability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness as well as outline possible avenues of research that might raise the possibility of achievable industrial scalability and sustainability. Meanwhile, nanocomposites  show promise in photocatalysis and solar energy applications due to their superior light absorption and charge transport properties. Carbon-based hybrids exhibit outstanding electrical conductivity and are being developed for use in super capacitors, batteries, and electronic cooling systems. Biomedical applications, environmental sensors, and advanced fluid technologies (e.g., nanofluids) also benefit from these materials. Emphasis is placed on continued interdisciplinary research and innovation to unlock their full potential and expand their industrial applicability in the future. With strategic development, these materials promise transformative impacts across energy, medicine, electronics, and environmental sectors. To explore recent advancements in the synthesis techniques of hybrid nanofluids and analyze the thermophysical and chemical properties of hybrid nanofluids.

---

References

[1]. Li, H., Ali, A. B. M., Hussein, R. A., Singh, N. S. S., Abdullaeva, B., Ahmad, Z., Salahshour, S., Baghoolizadeh, M., & Pirmoradian, M. (2025). Prediction of the thermophysical properties of Ag-reduced graphene oxide-water/ethylene-glycol hybrid nanofluids using different machine learning methods. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 69, 106038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2025.106038

[2]. M. Bernagozzi, A. Georgoulas, N. Miche, and M. Marengo, “Heat pipes in battery thermal management systems for electric vehicles: A critical review,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 219, p. 119495, 2023.

[3]. B. I. Master, K. S. Chunangad, A. J. Boxma, D. Kral, and P. Stehlik, “Most frequently used heat exchangers from pioneering research to worldwide applications,” Heat Transf. Eng., vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 4–11, 2006.

[4]. K. Azeez, Z. A. Ibrahim, and A. M. Hussein, “Thermal conductivity and viscosity measurement

[5]. of ZnO nanoparticles dispersing in various base fluids,” J. Adv. Res. Fluid Mech. Therm. Sci., vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 1–10, 2020.

[6]. H. Younes, M. Mao, S. M. S. Murshed, D. Lou, H. Hong, and G. P. Peterson, “Nanofluids: Key parameters to enhance thermal conductivity and its applications,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 207, p. 118202, 2022.

[7]. R. Bhatia, S. Garg, and P. Attrid, “Sol-gel-based synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles for air and water purification,” in Smart Ceramics, Jenny Stanford Publishing, 2018, pp. 275–301.

[8]. R. Manimaran, K. Palaniradja, N. Alagumurthi, S. Sendhilnathan, and J. Hussain, “Preparation and characterization of copper oxide nanofluid for heat transfer applications,” Appl. Nanosci., vol. 4, pp. 163–167, 2014.

[9]. T. Xing et al., “Ball milling: a green mechanochemical approach for synthesis of nitrogen doped carbon nanoparticles,” Nanoscale, vol. 5, no. 17, pp. 7970–7976, 2013.

[10]. V. Fuskele and R. M. Sarviya, “Recent developments in nanoparticles synthesis, preparation and stability of nanofluids,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 4049–4060, 2017.

[11]. B. Sharma, S. K. Sharma, S. M. Gupta, and A. Kumar, “Modified two-step method to prepare long-term stable CNT nanofluids for heat transfer applications,” Arab. J. Sci. Eng., vol. 43, pp. 6155–6163, 2018.

[12]. M. M. Husein and N. N. Nassar, “Nanoparticle preparation using the single microemulsions scheme,” Curr. Nanosci., vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 370–380, 2008.

[13]. C. T. J. Low, R. G. A. Wills, and F. C. Walsh, “Electrodeposition of composite coatings containing nanoparticles in a metal deposit,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 201, no. 1–2, pp. 371– 383, 2006.

[14]. A. Badawi, M. G. Althobaiti, S. S. Alharthi, A. N. Alharbi, A. A. Alkathiri, and S. E. Alomairy, “Effect of zinc doping on the structure and optical properties of iron oxide nanostructured films prepared by spray pyrolysis technique,” Appl. Phys. A, vol. 128, no. 2, p. 123, 2022.

[15]. S. Wang et al., “Surface functionalization of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles for dispersion and tribological applications-a review,” J. Mol. Liq., p. 122821, 2023.

[16]. Z. Zhang, Y. Wu, Z. Wang, X. Zou, Y. Zhao, and L. Sun, “Fabrication of silver nanoparticles embedded into polyvinyl alcohol (Ag/PVA) composite nanofibrous films through electrospinning for antibacterial and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) activities,” Mater. Sci. Eng. C, vol. 69, pp. 462–469, 2016.

[17]. J. Li et al., “Precipitation behavior and mechanical properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu matrix nanocomposites: Effects of SiC nanoparticles addition and heat treatment,” Mater. Charact., vol. 172, p. 110827, 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2020.110827.

[18]. D. Bokov et al., “Nanomaterial by Sol-Gel Method: Synthesis and Application,” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 2021, p. 5102014, 2021, doi: 10.1155/2021/5102014.

[19]. D. An et al., “Synthesis of Zn2SnO4 via a co-precipitation method and its gas-sensing property

[20]. toward ethanol,” Sensors Actuators B Chem., vol. 213, Jul. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2015.02.042.

[21]. S. Jingyu, H. Jianshu, C. Yanxia, and Z. Xiaogang, “Hydrothermal Synthesis of Pt- Ru/MWCNTs and its Electrocatalytic Properties for Oxidation of Methanol,” Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., vol. 2, Jan. 2007.

[22]. X.-D. Wang, K. Vinodgopal, and G. Dai, “Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes by Catalytic Chemical Vapor Deposition,” 2019. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.86995.

[23]. H. Paloniemi et al., “Layer-by-Layer Electrostatic Self-Assembly of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotube Polyelectrolytes,” Langmuir, vol. 22, pp. 74–83, Feb. 2006, doi: 10.1021/la051736i.

[24]. H. Yang, B. Yang, W. Chen, and J. Yang, “Preparation and Photocatalytic Activities of TiO2- Based

[25]. Composite Catalysts,” Catalysts, vol. 12, no. 10. 2022. doi: 10.3390/catal12101263.

[26]. A. S. Ali, A. Mohammed, and H. Saud, “Hydrothermal Synthesis of TiO2 /Al2O3 Nanocomposite and its Application as Improved Sonocatalyst,” Int. J. Eng. Technol., vol. 7, pp. 22–25, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.14419/ijet.v7i4.37.23607.

[27]. B. Gao, G. Chen, and G. Puma, “Carbon nanotubes/titanium dioxide (CNTs/TiO2) nanocomposites prepared by conventional and novel surfactant wrapping sol–gel methods exhibiting enhanced photocatalytic activity,” Appl. Catal. B Environ., vol. 89, pp. 503–509, Jul. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.01.009.

[28]. A. Abdulghani and R. Hussain, “Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Via Chemical Reduction of Au (III) Ions by Isatin in Aqueous solutions: Ligand Concentrations and pH Effects,” Baghdad Sci. J., vol. 11, pp. 1201–1216, Sep. 2014.

[29]. S. Shahrokhian and S. Rastgar, “Electrochemical deposition of gold nanoparticles on carbon nanotube coated glassy carbon electrode for the improved sensing of tinidazole,” Electrochim. Acta, vol. 78, pp. 422–429, Feb. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.06.035.

[30]. D. Bogdal, S. Bednarz, and K. Matras-Postołek, “Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Hybrid Polymer Materials and Composites,” 2014. doi: 10.1007/12_2014_296.

[31]. M. Salim et al., “Characterization Techniques for Hybrid Nanocomposites Based on Graphene and Nanoparticles,” 2021, pp. 23–69. doi: 10.1007/978-981-33-4988-9_2.

[32]. J. Zhu et al., “Multifunctional Polyimide/Graphene Oxide Composites via In Situ Polymerization,” J. Appl. Polym. Sci., vol. 131, May 2014, doi: 10.1002/app.40177.

[33]. S. Pansri and S. Noothongkaew, “MWCNTs/r-GO hybrid films fabricated by layer by layer assembly for supercapacitor electrodes,” J. Energy Storage, vol. 22, pp. 153–156, Apr. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.est.2019.02.009.

[34]. R. Nankya and K.-N. Kim, “Sol–Gel Synthesis and Characterization of Cu–TiO2 Nanoparticles with Enhanced Optical and Photocatalytic Properties,” J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., vol. 16, pp. 11631–11634, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1166/jnn.2016.13564.

[35]. L. O. Asmin and L. Isa, “SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF STRUCTURALNANOCOMPOSITE TITANIUM DIOXIDE COPPER-DOPED USING THE IMPREGNATION METHOD,” Spektra J. Fis. dan Apl., vol. 5, pp. 21–30, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.21009/SPEKTRA.051.03.

[36]. A. Ayal, A. Hashim, A. Mohammed, A. Farhan, A. M. Holi, and L. ying chin, “Electrochemical Deposition of Cu-Nanoparticle-Loaded CdSe/TiO2 Nanotube Nanostructure as Photoelectrode,” J. Electron. Mater., vol. 50, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s11664-021-09062-9.

[37]. D. Ying and D. Zhang, “Processing of Cu–Al 2O 3 metal matrix nanocomposite materials by using high energy ball milling,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A-structural Mater. Prop. Microstruct. Process. - MATER SCI ENG A-STRUCT MATER, vol. 286, pp. 152–156, Jun. 2000, doi: 10.1016/S0921-5093(00)00627-4.

[38]. S. A. Hassanzadeh-Tabrizi and E. Taheri-Nassaj, “Sol–Gel Synthesis and Characterization of Al2O3–CeO2 Composite Canopowder,” J. Alloy. Compd. - J Alloy. Compd., vol. 494, pp. 289– 294, Apr. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.01.012.

[39]. P. Shanmugapriya, S. Vijayaraghavan, B. Karthikeyan, and T. Rajamurugan, “Surface modification of nanocomposite Al2O3/Gr/HAP coating for improving wear and corrosion behaviour on Ti–6Al–4V alloy using sol–gel technique,” Multiscale Multidiscip. Model. Exp. Des., vol. 4, pp. 1–11, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1007/s41939-021-00089-3.

[40]. Z.-F. Yang, L. Li, C.-T. Hsieh, and R.-S. Juang, “Co-precipitation of magnetic Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles onto carbon nanotubes for removal of copper ions from aqueous solution,” J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng., vol. 82, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.jtice.2017.11.009.

[41]. W. Quanjie, Y. Wang, B. Duan, and M. Zhang, “Modified Sol-Gel Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes Supported Titania Composites with Enhanced Visible Light Induced Photocatalytic Activity,” J. Nanomater., vol. 2016, pp. 1–6, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1155/2016/3967156.

[42]. Y. Zhang, Z. Wang, Y. Ji, S. Liu, and T. Zhang, “Synthesis of Ag nanoparticle–carbon nanotube–reduced graphene oxide hybrids for highly sensitive non-enzymatic hydrogen peroxide detection,” RSC Adv., vol. 5, Apr. 2015, doi: 10.1039/C5RA04246A.

[43]. A. Grewal, K. Kumar, S. Redhu, and S. Bhardwaj, “Microwave assisted synthesis: a green chemistry approach,” Int. Res. J. Pharm. Appl. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 278–285, May 2013.

[44]. R. Winkler, “Developement of an ‘all-in-one’ approach for the synthesis of silica-based hybrid materials,” 2019.

[45]. D.-H. Nam et al., “High-Temperature Chemical Vapor Deposition for SiC Single Crystal Bulk Growth Using Tetramethylsilane as a Precursor,” Cryst. Growth Des., vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 5569– 5574, Nov. 2014, doi: 10.1021/cg5008186.

[46]. G. Mariani, R. Schweins, and F. Gröhn, “Electrostatic Self-Assembly of Dendrimer Macroions and Multivalent Dye Counterions: The Role of Solution Ionic Strength,” Macromolecules, vol. 49, no. 22, pp. 8661–8671, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b00565.

[47]. M. Oraei, H. Mostaan, and Mjij. Rafiei, “The effect of Al2O3 reinforcement particles on the

[48]. corrosion behavior of Al (Zn) solid solution matrix,” Int. J. Mater. Res., vol. 109, no. 11, pp. 1020–1026, 2018.

[49]. M. Kirchhoff, U. Specht, and G. Veser, “Engineering high-temperature stable nanocomposite materials,” Nanotechnology, vol. 16, no. 7, p. S401, 2005.

[50]. Z. Zhang, J. Qin, W. Zhang, Y.-T. Pan, D.-Y. Wang, and R. Yang, “Synthesis of a novel dual layered double hydroxide hybrid nanomaterial and its application in epoxy nanocomposites,” Chem. Eng. J., vol. 381, p. 122777, 2020.

[51]. V. Mani, S.-M. Chen, and B.-S. Lou, “Three dimensional graphene oxide-carbon nanotubes and graphene-carbon nanotubes hybrids,” Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., vol. 8, no. 10, pp. 11641–11660, 2013.

[52]. A. Chatterjee and D. Hansora, “Graphene based functional hybrid nanostructures: preparation, properties and applications,” in Materials Science Forum, Trans Tech Publ, 2016, pp. 53–75.

[53]. K. C. Kemp et al., “Environmental applications using graphene composites: water remediation and gas adsorption,” Nanoscale, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 3149–3171, 2013.

[54]. E. R. Morales et al., “Physical properties of the CNT: TiO2 thin films prepared by sol–gel dip coating,” Sol. Energy, vol. 86, no. 4, pp. 1037–1044, 2012.

[55]. Y. L. Pang, S. Lim, H. C. Ong, and W. T. Chong, “A critical review on the recent progress of synthesizing techniques and fabrication of TiO2-based nanotubes photocatalysts,” Appl. Catal. A Gen., vol. 481, pp. 127–142, 2014.

[56]. H. Li, L. Sun, and W. Li, “Application of organosilanes in titanium-containing organic– inorganic hybrid coatings,” J. Mater. Sci., vol. 57, no. 29, pp. 13845–13870, 2022.

[57]. A. Arvinte, I.-A. Crudu, F. Doroftei, D. Timpu, and M. Pinteala, “Electrochemical codeposition of silver-gold nanoparticles on CNT-based electrode and their performance in electrocatalysis of dopamine,” J. Electroanal. Chem., vol. 829, pp. 184–193, 2018.

[58]. Y.-J. Kim et al., “A seed-mediated growth of gold nanoparticles inside carbon nanotube fibers for fabrication of multifunctional nanohybrid fibers with enhanced mechanical and electrical properties,” Nanoscale, vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 5295–5303, 2019.

[59]. A. Kumar, Y. Kuang, Z. Liang, and X. Sun, “Microwave chemistry, recent advancements, and eco-friendly microwave-assisted synthesis of nanoarchitectures and their applications: a review,” Mater. Today Nano, vol. 11, p. 100076, 2020.

[60]. S. Sharma and B. P. Singh, “Mechanical Properties of Graphene–Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Hybrid Polymer Nanocomposites,” 2021.

[61]. H. J. Salavagione, A. M. Díez-Pascual, E. Lázaro, S. Vera, and M. A. Gómez-Fatou, “Chemical sensors based on polymer composites with carbon nanotubes and graphene: the role of the polymer,” J. Mater. Chem. A, vol. 2, no. 35, pp. 14289–14328, 2014.

[62]. M. Yang, Y. Hou, and N. A. Kotov, “Graphene-based multilayers: Critical evaluation of materials assembly techniques,” Nano Today, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 430–447, 2012.

[63]. A. Rodríguez-Álvarez, S. Silva-Martínez, and C. A. Pineda-Arellano, “Influence of copper and iron transition metals in the photocatalytic activity of titanium dioxide microspheres,” J. Photochem. Photobiol. A Chem., vol. 444, p. 115016, 2023.

[64]. J. O. Olowoyo, M. Kumar, T. Dash, S. Saran, S. Bhandari, and U. Kumar, “Self-organized copper impregnation and doping in TiO2 with enhanced photocatalytic conversion of H2O and CO2 to fuel,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 43, no. 42, pp. 19468–19480, 2018.

[65]. K. Liu, Y. Song, and S. Chen, “Defective TiO 2-supported Cu nanoparticles as efficient and stable electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction in alkaline media,” Nanoscale, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1224–1232, 2015.

[66]. F. Shehata, A. Fathy, M. Abdelhameed, and S. F. Moustafa, “Preparation and properties of Al2O3 nanoparticle reinforced copper matrix composites by in situ processing,” Mater. Des., vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 2756–2762, 2009.

[67]. A. Mitra and G. De, “Sol-gel synthesis of metal nanoparticle incorporated oxide films on glass,” in Glass Nanocomposites, Elsevier, 2016, pp. 145–163.

[68]. P. Fauchais and A. Vardelle, “Thermal sprayed coatings used against corrosion and corrosive wear,” Adv. plasma spray Appl., vol. 10, p. 34448, 2012.

[69]. N. M. Malima, S. J. Owonubi, G. B. Shombe, and N. Revaprasadu, “Synthesis of Magnetic Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites,” in Handbook of Magnetic Hybrid Nanoalloys and their Nanocomposites, Springer, 2022, pp. 233–272.

[70]. S. Liu, B. Yu, S. Wang, Y. Shen, and H. Cong, “Preparation, surface functionalization and application of Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles,” Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., vol. 281, p. 102165, 2020.

[71]. S. Nezamdoust, D. Seifzadeh, and Z. Rajabalizadeh, “PTMS/OH-MWCNT sol-gel nanocomposite for corrosion protection of magnesium alloy,” Surf. Coatings Technol., vol. 335, pp. 228–240, 2018.

[72]. F. Lorestani, Z. Shahnavaz, P. Mn, Y. Alias, and N. S. A. Manan, “One-step hydrothermal green synthesis of silver nanoparticle-carbon nanotube reduced-graphene oxide composite and its application as hydrogen peroxide sensor,” Sensors Actuators B Chem., vol. 208, pp. 389–398, 2015.

[73]. A. Farokhi-Fard, B. Golichenari, M. M. Ghanbarlou, S. Zanganeh, and F. Vaziri, “Electroanalysis of isoniazid and rifampicin: Role of nanomaterial electrode modifiers,” Biosens. Bioelectron., vol. 146, p. 111731, 2019.

[74]. D. M. Clifford, C. E. Castano, and J. V Rojas, “Supported transition metal nanomaterials: Nanocomposites synthesized by ionizing radiation,” Radiat. Phys. Chem., vol. 132, pp. 52–64, 2017.

[75]. S. J. Palm, G. Roy, and C. T. Nguyen, “Heat transfer enhancement with the use of nanofluids in radial flow cooling systems considering temperature-dependent properties,” Appl. Therm. Eng. vol. 26, no. 17–18, pp. 2209–2218, 2006.

[76]. C. Tarcizo da Cruz, A. Brasil, L. O. Ladeira, and M. Houmard, “Influence of the nanostructure of silica supports on the growth and morphology of MWCNTs synthesized by CCVD method,” Ceram. Int., vol. 45, no. 10, pp. 13297–13307, 2019.

[77]. Z. Yuan, X. Xiao, J. Li, Z. Zhao, D. Yu, and Q. Li, “Self‐assembled graphene‐based architectures and their applications,” Adv. Sci., vol. 5, no. 2, p. 1700626, 2018.

[78]. W. T. Urmi, A. S. Shafiqah, M. M. Rahman, K. Kadirgama, and M. A. Maleque, “Preparation methods and challenges of hybrid nanofluids: a review,” J. Adv. Res. Fluid Mech. Therm. Sci., vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 56–66, 2021.

[79]. M. F. Nabil, W. H. Azmi, K. A. Hamid, N. N. M. Zawawi, G. Priyandoko, and R. Mamat, “Thermo-physical properties of hybrid nanofluids and hybrid nanolubricants: a comprehensive review on performance,” Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf., vol. 83, pp. 30–39, 2017.

[80]. S. K. Filippov et al., “Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy in drug delivery: a roadmap for correct characterization of nanoparticles and interpretation of results,” Mater. Horizons, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 5354–5370, 2023.

[81]. D. Toghraie, V. A. Chaharsoghi, and M. Afrand, “Measurement of thermal conductivity of ZnO–TiO 2/EG hybrid nanofluid: effects of temperature and nanoparticles concentration,” J. Therm. Anal. Calorim., vol. 125, pp. 527–535, 2016.

[82]. M. Tavakoli and M. R. Soufivand, “Performance evaluation criteria and entropy generation of hybrid nanofluid in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two different types of cross-sectional baffles,” Eng. Anal. Bound. Elem., vol. 150, pp. 272–284, 2023.

[83]. R. Mashayekhi, E. Khodabandeh, O. A. Akbari, D. Toghraie, M. Bahiraei, and M. Gholami, “CFD analysis of thermal and hydrodynamic characteristics of hybrid nanofluid in a new designed sinusoidal double-layered microchannel heat sink,” J. Therm. Anal. Calorim., vol. 134, no. 3, pp. 2305–2315, 2018.

[84]. A. I. Ramadhan, W. H. Azmi, R. Mamat, E. Diniardi, and T. Y. Hendrawati, “Experimental investigation of cooling performance in automotive radiator using Al2O3-TiO2-SiO2 nanofluids,” Automot. Exp., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 28–39, 2022.

[85]. J. Qu, R. Zhang, Z. Wang, and Q. Wang, “Photo-thermal conversion properties of hybrid CuO- MWCNT/H2O nanofluids for direct solar thermal energy harvest,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 147, pp. 390–398, 2019.

[86]. S. Suresh, K. P. Venkitaraj, P. Selvakumar, and M. Chandrasekar, “Effect of Al2O3–Cu/water hybrid nanofluid in heat transfer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., vol. 38, pp. 54–60, 2012, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2011.11.007.

[87]. H. Yarmand et al., “Graphene nanoplatelets–silver hybrid nanofluids for enhanced heat transfer,” Energy Convers. Manag., vol. 100, Aug. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.023.

[88]. D. Madhesh, R. Parameshwaran, and S. Kalaiselvam, “Experimental investigation on convective heat transfer and rheological characteristics of Cu–TiO2 hybrid nanofluids,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., vol. 52, pp. 104–115, 2014.

[89]. S. Akilu, A. T. Baheta, M. A. M. Said, A. A. Minea, and K. V Sharma, “Properties of glycerol and ethylene glycol mixture based SiO2-CuO/C hybrid nanofluid for enhanced solar energy transport,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, vol. 179, pp. 118–128, 2018.

[90]. R. S. Kumar, R. Narukulla, and T. Sharma, “Comparative effectiveness of thermal stability and rheological properties of nanofluid of SiO2–TiO2 nanocomposites for oil field applications,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 59, no. 35, pp. 15768–15783, 2020.

[91]. M. L. G. Ho, C. S. Oon, L.-L. Tan, Y. Wang, and Y. M. Hung, “A review on nanofluids coupled with extended surfaces for heat transfer enhancement,” Results Eng., vol. 17, p. 100957, 2023, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.100957.

[92]. R. Azizian, H. Aybar, and T. Okutucu, “Effect of nanoconvection due to Brownian motion on thermal conductivity of nanofluids,” Jan. 2009.

[93]. M. Beck, Y. Yuan, P. Warrier, and A. Teja, “The effect of particle size on the thermal conductivity of nanofluids,” J. Nanoparticle Res., vol. 11, pp. 1129–1136, Jul. 2008, doi: 10.1007/s11051-008-9500-2.

[94]. P. Keblinski, J. A. Eastman, and D. G. Cahill, “Nanofluids for thermal transport,” Mater. Today, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 36–44, 2005, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1369-7021(05)70936-6.

[95]. J. Buongiorno, “Convective Transport in Nanofluids,” J. Heat Transfer, vol. 128, no. 3, pp. 240– 250, Aug. 2005, doi: 10.1115/1.2150834.

[96]. R. Essajai, A. Mzerd, N. Hassanain, and M. Qjani, “Thermal conductivity enhancement of nanofluids composed of rod-shaped gold nanoparticles: Insights from molecular dynamics,” J. Mol. Liq., vol. 293, p. 111494, 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2019.111494.

[97]. L. Hamid and H. Zerradi, “The Effect of the Liquid Layer Around the Spherical and Cylindrical Nanoparticles in Enhancing Thermal Conductivity of Nanofluids,” J. Heat Transfer, vol. 141, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1115/1.4042329.

[98]. A. S. Sabu, A. Wakif, S. Areekara, A. Mathew, and N. A. Shah, “Significance of nanoparticles’ shape and thermo-hydrodynamic slip constraints on MHD alumina-water nanoliquid flows over a rotating heated disk: The passive control approach,” Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf., vol. 129, p. 105711, 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2021.105711.

[99]. A. Yahyaee, P. Vatankhah, and H. Sørensen, “Effects of nanoparticle size on surface dynamics and thermal performance in film boiling of Al2O3 water-based nanofluids,” Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp., vol. 696, p. 134267, 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.134267.

[100]. I. Zahmatkesh et al., “Effect of nanoparticle shape on the performance of thermal systems utilizing nanofluids: A critical review,” J. Mol. Liq., vol. 321, p. 114430, Oct. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.114430.

[101]. M. Awais, A. A. Bhuiyan, S. Salehin, M. M. Ehsan, B. Khan, and M. H. Rahman, “Synthesis, heat transport mechanisms and thermophysical properties of nanofluids: A critical overview,” Int. J. Thermofluids, vol. 10, p. 100086, 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2021.100086.

[102]. S. Ferrouillat, A. Bontemps, O. Poncelet, O. Soriano, and J. Gruss, “Influence of nanoparticle shape factor on convective heat transfer and energetic performance of water-based SiO2 and ZnO nanofluids,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 51, pp. 839–851, Mar. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.10.020.

[103]. W. Urmi, P. D. M. M. Rahman, K. Kadirgama, Z. Malek, and W. Safiei, “A Comprehensive Review on Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity of Nanofluids,” J. Adv. Res. Fluid Mech. Therm. Sci., vol. 91, pp. 15–40, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.37934/arfmts.91.2.1540.

[104]. S. Sadripour and A. J. Chamkha, “The effect of nanoparticle morphology on heat transfer and entropy generation of supported nanofluids in a heat sink solar collector,” Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog., vol. 9, pp. 266–280, 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2018.12.002.

[105]. ,J. P. Abraham, J. M. Gorman, and W. J. B. T.-A. in H. T. Minkowycz, Eds., Elsevier, 2024, pp. 101–128. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiht.2024.05.001.

[106]. W. Duangthongsuk and S. Wongwises, “Measurement of temperature-dependent thermal conductivity and viscosity of TiO2-water nanofluids,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 706–714, 2009, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2009.01.005.

[107]. E. Abu-Nada, “Effects of variable viscosity and thermal conductivity of Al2O3–water nanofluid on heat transfer enhancement in natural convection,” Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 679–690, 2009.

[108]. S. K. Pathak, R. Kumar, V. Goel, A. K. Pandey, and V. V Tyagi, “Recent advancements in thermal performance of nano-fluids charged heat pipes used for thermal management applications: A comprehensive review,” Appl. Therm. Eng., vol. 216, p. 119023, 2022.

[109]. S. U. Ilyas, R. Pendyala, M. Narahari, and L. Susin, “Stability, rheology and thermal analysis of functionalized alumina-thermal oil-based nanofluids for advanced cooling systems,” Energy Convers. Manag., vol. 142, pp. 215–229, 2017.

[110]. C. Zapata-Hernandez, G. Durango-Giraldo, D. López, R. Buitrago-Sierra, and K. Cacua, “Surfactants versus surface functionalization to improve the stability of graphene nanofluids,” J. Dispers. Sci. Technol., vol. 43, no. 11, pp. 1717–1724, 2022.

[111]. A. Qamar et al., “Preparation and dispersion stability of aqueous metal oxide nanofluids for potential heat transfer applications: a review of experimental studies,” J. Therm. Anal. Calorim., pp. 1–24, 2020.

[112]. N. Hordy, D. Rabilloud, J.-L. Meunier, and S. Coulombe, “High temperature and long-term stability of carbon nanotube nanofluids for direct absorption solar thermal collectors,” Sol.Energy, vol. 105, pp. 82–90, 2014.

[113]. H. Yasmin, S. O. Giwa, S. Noor, and H. Ş. Aybar, “Influence of preparation characteristics on stability, properties, and performance of mono-and hybrid nanofluids: Current and future perspective,” Machines, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 112, 2023.

[114]. J. A. Eastman, S. U. S. Choi, S. Li, W. Yu, and L. J. Thompson, “Anomalously increased effective thermal conductivities of ethylene glycol-based nanofluids containing copper nanoparticles,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 78, no. 6, pp. 718–720, Feb. 2001, doi: 10.1063/1.1341218.

[115]. S. P. Jang and S. U. S. Choi, “Role of Brownian motion in the enhanced thermal conductivity of nanofluids,” Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 84, no. 21, pp. 4316–4318, May 2004, doi: 10.1063/1.1756684.

[116]. Y. Xuan and Q. Li, “Investigation on Convective Heat Transfer and Flow Features of Nanofluids,” J. Heat Transf. Asme - J HEAT Transf., vol. 125, Feb. 2003, doi: 10.1115/1.1532008.

[117]. R. L. Hamilton and O. K. Crosser, “Thermal Conductivity of Heterogeneous Two-Component Systems,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 187–191, Aug. 1962, doi: 10.1021/i160003a005.

[118]. W. Yu and S. U. S. Choi, “The Role of Interfacial Layers in the Enhanced Thermal Conductivity of Nanofluids: A Renovated Maxwell Model,” J. Nanoparticle Res., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 167–171, 2003, doi: 10.1023/A:1024438603801.

[119]. X.-Q. Wang and A. S. Mujumdar, “A review on nanofluids - part I: theoretical and numerical investigations,” Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, vol. 25. scielo , 2008.

[120]. E. Timofeeva, J. Routbort, and D. Singh, “Particle shape effect on thermophysical properties of alumina nanofluids,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 106, p. 14304, Aug. 2009, doi: 10.1063/1.3155999.

[121]. P. Keblinski, S. R. Phillpot, S. U. S. Choi, and J. A. Eastman, “Mechanisms of heat flow in suspensions of nano-sized particles (nanofluids),” Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 855–863, 2002, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0017-9310(01)00175-2.

[122]. E. Ponticorvo, M. Iuliano, C. Cirillo, A. Maiorino, C. Aprea, and M. Sarno, “Fouling behavior and dispersion stability of nanoparticle-based refrigeration fluid,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 9, p. 3059, 2022.

[123]. J. Forth, P. Y. Kim, G. Xie, X. Liu, B. A. Helms, and T. P. Russell, “Building reconfigurable devices using complex liquid–fluid interfaces,” Adv. Mater., vol. 31, no. 18, p. 1806370, 2019.

[124]. A. Ibrahim, H. Peng, A. Riaz, M. A. Basit, U. Rashid, and A. Basit, “Molten salts in the light of corrosion mitigation strategies and embedded with nanoparticles to enhance the thermophysical properties for CSP plants,” Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, vol. 219, p. 110768, 2021.

[125]. Z. Zahra, Z. Habib, S. Hyun, and M. Sajid, “Nanowaste: Another future waste, its sources, release mechanism, and removal strategies in the environment,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 4, p.2041,2022.

[126]. Palanikumar, G., Shanmugan, S., Chithambaram, V., Gorjian, S., Pruncu, C. I., Essa, F. A., Kabeel, A. E., Panchal, H., Janarthanan, B., Ebadi, H., Elsheikh, A. H., & Selvaraj, P. (2021). Thermal investigation of a solar boxtype cooker with nanocomposite phase change materials using flexible thermography. Renewable Energy, 178, 260–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.06.022

[127]. Thamizharasu, P., Shanmugan, S., Gorjian, S. et al. Improvement of Thermal Performance of a Solar Box Type Cooker Using SiO2/TiO2 Nanolayer. Silicon 14, 557–565 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-020-00835-1

[128]. Elkelawy, M., Etaiw, S. E. H., Bastawissi, H. A. E., Marie, H., Elbanna, A., Panchal, H., Sadasivuni, K., & Bhargav, H. (2020). Study of diesel-biodiesel blends combustion and emission characteristics in a CI engine by adding nanoparticles of Mn (II) supramolecular complex. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 11(1), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2019.09.021

[129]. Saleh, B., Essa, F.A., Aly, A. et al. Investigating the performance of dish solar distiller with phase change material mixed with Al2O3 nanoparticles under different water depths. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 28115–28126 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18295-4

[130]. M. Vaka, R. Walvekar, A. K. Rasheed, M. Khalid and H. Panchal, "A Review: Emphasizing the Nanofluids Use in PV/T Systems," in IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 58227-58249, 2020, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2950384.

[131]. Parikh, R., Patdiwala, U., Parikh, S., Panchal, H., & Sadasivuni, K. K. (2021). Performance enhancement using TiO2 nano particles in solar still at variable water depth. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 43(1), 4037–4044. https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2021.1873853

[132]. Walvekar, R., Chen, Y. Y., Saputra, R., Khalid, M., Panchal, H., Chandran, D., Mubarak, N. M., & Sadasivuni, K. K. (2021). Deep eutectic solvents-based CNT nanofluid – A potential alternative to conventional heat transfer fluids. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 128, 314–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2021.06.017

[133]. Thakre, Shekhar, Pandhare, Amar, Malwe, Prateek D., Gupta, Naveen, Kothare, Chandrakant, Magade, Pramod B., Patel, Anand, Meena, Radhey Shyam, Veza, Ibham, Natrayan L., and Panchal, Hitesh. "Heat transfer and pressure drop analysis of a microchannel heat sink using nanofluids for energy applications" Kerntechnik, vol. 88, no. 5, 2023, pp. 543-555. https://doi.org/10.1515/kern-2023-0034

[134]. Dharmakkan, N., Srinivasan, P. M., Muthusamy, S., Jomde, A., Shamkuwar, S., Sonawane, C., Sharma, K., Alrubaie, A. J., El Shafay, A. S., & Panchal, H. (2023). A case study on analyzing the performance of microplate heat exchanger using nanofluids at different flow rates and temperatures. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 44, 102805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2023.102805

[135]. Kumar, R., Chanda, J., Elsheikh, A. H., Ongar, B., Khidolda, Y., PraveenKumar, S., Panchal, H., & Shanmugan, S. (2023). Performance improvement of single and double effect solar stills with silver balls/nanofluids for bioactivation: An experimental analysis. Solar Energy, 259, 452–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2023.05.012

[136]. Panchal, H., & Sadasivuni, K. K. (2020). Experimental investigation on solar still with nanomaterial and dripping arrangement. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 47(1), 1886–1896. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2020.1834647

[137]. Mehta, B., Subhedar, D., Panchal, H., & Sadasivuni, K. K. (2023). Stability and thermophysical properties enhancement of Al₂O₃–water nanofluid using cationic CTAB surfactant. International Journal of Thermofluids, 20, 100410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100410

[138]. Vidhya, R., Balakrishnan, T., Kumar, B. Suresh, Palanisamy, R., Panchal, Hitesh, Angulo-Cabanillas, Luis, Shaik, Saboor, Saleh, B., Alarifi, Ibrahim M., An Experimental Study of ZrO2-CeO2 Hybrid Nanofluid and Response Surface Methodology for the Prediction of Heat Transfer Performance: The New Correlations, Journal of Nanomaterials, 2022, 6596028, 11 pages, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/6596028

[139]. Yalçın, G., Huminic, G., Huminic, A., Panchal, H., & Dalkılıç, A. S. (2024). Investigation on the effect of surfactants on the viscosity of graphite–water-based nanofluids. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 398, 124197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2024.124197

[140]. Pipwala, H., Kapadia, R., Panchal, H., Singh, B., Malwe, P. D., Kumar, A., Makki, E., & Giri, J. (2024). Performance investigation of a direct-cooled refrigerator with CuO-R600a as a nanorefrigerant. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 9, 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100569

[141]. Subhedar DG, Ramani BM, Chauhan KV, et al. Experimental study on the variation of car radiator frontal area using Al2O3/water-ethylene glycol nano coolant. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering. 2023;238(4):1800-1808. doi:10.1177/09544089231159994

[142]. Vijay Kishorbhai Mehta, Hitesh Panchal, Bharat Singh, Laveet Kumar, Revolutionizing solar water distillation: maximizing efficiency with pyramid solar stills enhanced by fins, evacuated tubes, nanomaterial, and phase change materials—a comprehensive review, International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, Volume 19, 2024, Pages 1996–2009, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctae116

[143]. Alqsair, U. F., Abdullah, A. S., El-Shafay, A. S., & Panchal, H. (2023). Optimization and numerical study of the effect of using nanodiamond and nickel nanoparticles in solar desalination using two-phase mixture method and VOF. Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements, 155, 432–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enganabound.2023.06.036

[144]. Pandiyaraj, S., Murali, M., Muthusamy, S., & Panchal, H. (2023). Ultrasonically synthesized MgZnO nanoparticles for enhanced piezo-photocatalysis and MgZnO/p-Si heterojunction diode characteristics. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 45(1), 762–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2023.2172483