Applied Chemical Engineering

Impacts of mineral and biofertilizers on rhizosphere and bulk-soil carbon, sulfur, and C/S ratio in maize for soil sustainability

Russul Muhammad Ijbear

Department of Soil Sciences and Water Resources, College of Agriculture, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Qadisiyah, 58002, Iraq

Raid Shaalan Jarallah

Department of Soil Sciences and Water Resources, College of Agriculture, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Qadisiyah, 58002, Iraq

DOI: https://doi.org/10.59429/ace.v8i4.5762

Keywords: total sulfate; organic carbon; C/S; rhizosphere; biofertilizer; mineral fertilizer; soil sustainability

---

Abstract

Balanced carbon–sulfur (C-S) dynamics are crucial for maintaining soil fertility and sustaining crop productivity. This study examined how mineral and biofertilizers affect total sulfur (S), organic carbon (OC), and the C/S ratio in maize rhizosphere and bulk soils. A field experiment was established with six treatments: an unfertilized control, urea (250 kg N ha⁻¹), ammonium sulfate (200 kg N ha⁻¹), BioHealth biofertilizer (4–5 kg N ha⁻¹), liquid effective microorganisms (EM, 400 L ha⁻¹), and a combined fertilizer containing one-quarter of each recommended dose. Total S, OC, and C/S ratios were measured after 70 and 100 days of maize growth. Ammonium sulfate consistently produced the highest sulfur concentrations in both rhizosphere and bulk soils, with increases of more than 40% over the control at both sampling times. The combined fertilizer treatment significantly enhanced OC content in both soil compartments, with up to a 25 % increase compared with the control. Urea yielded the greatest C/S ratio (approximately 15 % higher than the control), while all treatments showed a progressive decline in C/S as sulfur availability increased, confirming an inverse S-C/S relationship. These results demonstrate that integrating bio- and mineral fertilizers improves soil C–S balance and nutrient availability, offering a practical strategy to enhance soil fertility and support sustainable maize production.

---

References

[1]. Bozóki, B., Khaeim, H., Sghaier, A. H., Kende, Z., Balla, Z., Kovács, G., & Gyuricza, C. (2025). Effect of Temperature Stress on Seed Germination and Growth Index of Peanut (Arachis Hypogaea L.) and Chickpea (Cicer Arietinum L.). Research On Crops, 26(1), 38-45. DOI: 10.31830/2348-7542.2025.ROC-1160

[2]. Omar, S., Abd Ghani, R., Khaeim, H., Sghaier, A. H., & Jolánkai, M. (2022). The effect of nitrogen fertilization on yield and quality of Maize (Zea Mays L.). Acta Alimentaria, 51 (2), pp. 249 - 258. DOI: 10.1556/066.2022.00022, https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?

[3]. Alfalahi, A. A; H. M. K. Al-Abodi; B. K. Abdul Jabbar; A. M. Mundi and K. A. Sulman. 2015. Scheduling irrigation as a water-saving practice for corn (Zea mays L.) production in Iraq. Inter. J. Appl. Agric. Sci. 1(359 -55.(

[4]. Tisdale, and Nelson 2003.Soil fertility and Fertilizers, 8th edition.

[5]. Lira-Saldivar, R.H.; E.Vázquez-Santiago; L.A. Valdez-Aguilar; A. Cárdenas-Flores; L. IbarraJiménez and M. Hernández-Suárez, (2013). Producción orgánica de pepino (Cucumis sativus L.) en casasombra con biofertilizantes y acolchado plástico. Agricultura Sostenible. 9: 802-815

[6]. Bronson, K. 2004. Nutrition management for Texas high plains cotton production. The agriculture program. The texas A & M. University System. Crop Sci. 33: 4-10.

[7]. Scherer, H.W. 2009. Sulfur in soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 172: 326–335.

[8]. Kertesz ,M. and P .Mirleau .2004. The role of soil microbes in plant sulphur nutrition. , Vol.55( 404): 1939–1945.

[9]. Chan, K. Y., and Lal, R. (2018). Soil Organic Carbon: Introduction, Importance, Status, Threat, and Mitigation. In: Soil Carbon Storage, pp. 1–28. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812766-7.00001-9

[10]. Santra, S.C:2006. .Special issue on Biofertilizer. ENVIS Center on environmental Biotechnology , V9 .2006

[11]. Bhat, T. A., Ahmad, L., Ganai, M. A., and Khan, O. A. 2015. Nitrogen fixing biofertilizers; mechanism and growth promotion: a review. J Pure Appl Microbiol, 9(2), 1675-1690.

[12]. Tipping, E., Somerville, C. J., & Luster, J. (2016). The C:N:P:S stoichiometry of soil organic matter. Biogeochemistry, 130(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-016-0247-z.

[13]. Lal, R. (2020). Soil organic matter and sustainability. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 75(2), 27A–35A. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.75.2.27A

[14]. Page, A.I.; R.H. Miller and D.R. Kenney. 1982. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part (2). 2nd ed. Agronomy 9 Am. Soc. Agron. Madison, Wisconsin.

[15]. Nelson, D. W., & Sommers, L. E. (1996). Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In D. L. Sparks et al. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3 – Chemical Methods (pp. 961–1010).

[16]. Black, C.A. 1965 a. Methods of soil analysis. Part1. Physical and Mineralogical properties Am. Soc. Agron., 9.Madison, Wisconsin, USA.

[17]. Al-Hamandi, H.M., Al-Obaidi, M.A., Aljumaily, M.M.: Study on quantity and intensity of potassium in the alluvial soils in Baghdad. Plant Archives, 19(2): 123–130 (2019).

[18]. Li, X., Zhang, Y., Wang, L., Chen, J., and Liu, H. (2024). Effects of different proportions of ammonium sulfate replacing urea on soil nutrients and rhizosphere microbial communities. Journal of Soil Science. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38897778

[19]. Al-Zubaidy, R. R., and Jarallah, R. S. (2024). Role of organic and mineral fertilizers in the availability of molybdenum in the rhizosphere and beyond of maize. Ecological Engineering and Environmental Technology, 25(9), 92–98. https://doi.org/10.12912/27197050/177205

[20]. Hamid, M.Q., E.H. Abd., Z.K. Al-Salihi, R.J. Muhammed and D.F. Hassan. 2025. Effect of organic conditioners on the physical properties of sandy soil under drip irrigation conditions. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 41(3): 1133-1142. https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2025/41.3.1133.1142

[21]. Zhalnina, K., Louie, K. B., Hao, Z., Mansoori, N., da Rocha, U. N., Shi, S., and Firestone, M. K. (2018). Dynamic root exudate chemistry and microbial substrate preferences drive patterns in rhizosphere microbial community assembly. Nature Microbiology, 3(4), 470–480.

[22]. Zhao, F. J., Hawkesford, M. J., and McGrath, S. P. (1999). Sulphur uptake and distribution in plants. Plant and Soil, 215(2), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004753720043

[23]. Giles, M., Morley, N., Baggs, E. M., and Daniell, T. J. (2012). Soil nitrate reducing processes – drivers, mechanisms for spatial variation, and significance for nitrous oxide production. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, 407. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2012.00407

[24]. Jarallah, R. S. H., and Abbas, N. A. (2019). Effect of sulfur and phosphate fertilizers application on the total phosphorus amount in rhizosphere of Zea mays L. Plant Archives, 19(1), 1208–1212.

[25]. Higa, T., and Parr, J. F. (1994). Beneficial and Effective Microorganisms for a Sustainable Agriculture and Environment. International Nature Farming Research Center.

[26]. Eriksen, J. (2009). Soil sulfur cycling in temperate agricultural systems. Advances in Agronomy, 102, 55–89.

[27]. Bationo, A., Waswa, B., Kihara, J., and Kimetu, J. (2007). Advances in integrated soil fertility management in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and opportunities. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5760-1

[28]. Adesemoye, A. O., and Kloepper, J. W. (2009). Plant–microbe interactions in enhanced fertilizer-use efficiency. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 85(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-009-2196-0

[29]. Aulakh, M. S., Khera, T. S., Doran, J. W., and Bronson, K. F. (2001). Managing crop residue with green manure, urea, and tillage in a rice–wheat rotation. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 65(3), 820–827. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2001.653820x

[30]. Al-Hasnawi, A. H., and Jarallah, R. S. (2024). Effect of maize and mung bean rhizosphere and type of fertilization on the percentage of total and active carbonate minerals. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2632, 020021. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0202221

[31]. Kuzyakov, Y., and Cheng, W. (2001). Photosynthesis controls of rhizosphere respiration and organic matter decomposition. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 33(14), 1915–1925. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00117-1

[32]. Sharma, P., Singh, A., & Kumar, V. (2020). Effect of nitrogen fertilizers on soil microbial activity and organic matter turnover. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 20(3), 1234–1245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-020-00234-7

[33]. Aljumaily, M.M., Al-Hamandi, H.M., Farhan, M.J., Kareem, H.A.: Relationship between Zn and Cd in soil and plant. Journal of Agricultural Science, 1(XXXIII): 33–42 (2022).

[34]. Al-Hasmoti, S. J. H., and Jarallah, R.S. (2023). Effect of different fertilizer types on the availability of manganese in soil cultivated with maize (Zea mays L.) during different growth periods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1259(1), 012009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1259/1/012009

[35]. Al-Khalidi, R.J. and Al-Taweel, L.S., 2024. The Effect of Humic Acid and Urea on the Activity of the Urease Enzyme in Soil Planted with Daughter Potatoes. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science V.1371, No. 8, p. 082001. IOP Publishing.