Applied Chemical Engineering

Experimental and Theoretical Performance Analysis of R1234ze(E)-Based Nanorefrigerant in Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems

Jay K Patel

Research scholar, Mechanical Engineering Department, Sankalchand Patel University, Visnagar, Gujarat, India (Orcid id: 0000-0001-8830-1796)

Shailesh K Patel

PhD Research Guide, Mechanical Engineering Department, Sankalchand patel University, Visnagar, Gujarat, India (Orcid id: 0000-0001-6081-7176)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.59429/ace.v9i2.5994

Keywords: R1234ze(E); Nanorefrigerant; Vapor compression refrigeration; Graphene nanoplatelets; SiO₂ nanoparticles; Coefficient of performance; Exergy analysis

---

Abstract

The global refrigeration sector is undergoing a fundamental transition toward low global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants under regulatory mandates such as the Kigali Amendment and the EU F-Gas Regulation. R1234ze(E) (trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene, GWP =6) has emerged as a leading candidate to replace R134a (GWP = 1430); however, it exhibits a 9–15% lower coefficient of performance (COP) and a 20–30% reduction in volumetric cooling capacity relative to the incumbent. This study investigates the performance enhancement of R1234ze(E)-based vapor compression refrigeration systems (VCRS) through nanorefrigerant technology. A combined experimental and theoretical approach evaluated energy and exergy performance using SiO₂ nanoparticles and graphene nanoplatelet/polyol ester (GNP/POE) nanolubricant. Numerical simulations employed the Peng-Robinson equation of state with nanoparticle suspension sub-models validated against experimental data. Dispersion of 0.05 vol% GNP in POE lubricant improved COP by 16.8% relative to pure R1234ze(E) and by 6.2% relative to R134a, with a maximum enhancement of 39.0% achieved under optimized conditions (360 g charge, 2000 RPM). SiO₂ nanoparticles at 0.5 mass% reduced compressor work by 11.6% while increasing the refrigeration effect by 8.3%. Exergy analysis identified compressor exergy destruction reduction (−23.7%) as the dominant improvement mechanism, with the overall exergetic efficiency rising from 36.5% to 42.8%. An optimal GNP concentration of 0.05–0.07 vol% was identified, beyond which viscosity-driven penalties degrade performance. The findings establish nanorefrigerant technology as a hardware-neutral, retrofit-compatible pathway for sustainable refrigeration.

---

References

[1]. Borikar, S. A., Gupta, M. M., Alazwari, M. A., Malwe, P. D., Moustafa, E. B., Panchal, H., & Elsheikh, A. (2021). A case study on experimental and statistical analysis of energy consumption of domestic refrigerator. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 28, 101636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.101636

[2]. Malwe, P. D., Shaikh, J., Gawali, B. S., Panchal, H., Dalkilic, A. S., Rahman, S., & Alrubaie, A. J. (2022). Dynamic simulation and exergy analysis of an organic Rankine cycle integrated with vapor compression refrigeration system. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 53, Article 102684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102684

[3]. Qasem, N. A. A., Lawal, D. U., Aljundi, I. H., Abdallah, A. M., & Panchal, H. (2022). Novel integration of a parallel-multistage direct contact membrane distillation plant with a double-effect absorption refrigeration system. Applied Energy, 323, 119572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119572

[4]. Malwe, P., Gawali, B., Shaikh, J., Deshpande, M., Dhalait, R., Kulkarni, S., … Sadasivuni, K. K. (2023). Exergy assessment of an Organic Rankine Cycle for waste heat recovery from a refrigeration system: a review. Chemical Engineering Communications, 210(5), 837–865. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986445.2021.1980396

[5]. Calm, J.M. The next generation of refrigerants – historical review, considerations, and outlook. Int. J. Refrig., 2008, 31(7), 1123-1133. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.01.013

[6]. McLinden, M.O.; Kazakov, A.F.; Brown, J.S.; Domanski, P.A. A thermodynamic analysis of refrigerants: possibilities and tradeoffs for low-GWP refrigerants. Int. J. Refrig., 2014, 38, 80-92. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2013.09.005

[7]. Mota-Babiloni, A.; Navarro-Esbrí, J.; Peris, B.; Molés, F.; Verdú, G. Analysis based on EU Regulation No 517/2014 of new HFC/HFO mixtures as alternatives of high GWP refrigerants in refrigeration and HVAC systems. Int. J. Refrig., 2015, 52, 21-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2014.12.016

[8]. Brown, J.S.; Zilio, C.; Cavallini, A. Thermodynamic properties of eight fluorinated olefins. Int. J. Refrig., 2010, 33, 235-241. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2009.08.005

[9]. Akasaka, R.; Yamaguchi, Y.; Lemmon, E.W. New fundamental equations of state with a common functional form for R-1234yf and R-1234ze(E). Int. J. Thermophys., 2011, 32, 1125-1147. DOI: 10.1007/s10765-011-0987-2

[10]. Akasaka, R.; Lemmon, E.W. An application of the extended corresponding states model to thermodynamic property calculations for HFO-1234ze(E). Int. J. Refrig., 2010, 33, 907-914. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2010.02.008

[11]. Honeywell International Inc. Solstice® ze (R1234ze(E)) product information. Technical Datasheet, 2015.

[12]. ASHRAE Standard 34. Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants. ASHRAE, 2022.

[13]. Saitoh, S.; Dang, C.; Nakamura, Y.; Hihara, E. Experimental study on cycle performance of low GWP refrigerants for air conditioning. Int. J. Refrig., 2012, 35, 185-194. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.09.001

[14]. Zilio, C.; Brown, J.S.; Schiochet, G.; Cavallini, A. Thermodynamic and heat transfer analysis of R1234ze(E) as a low-GWP replacement for R134a. HVAC&R Res., 2011, 17, 848-864. DOI: 10.1080/10789669.2011.607043

[15]. Molés, F.; et al. Theoretical energy performance evaluation of different single stage vapour compression refrigeration configurations using R1234yf and R1234ze(E). Int. J. Refrig., 2014, 44, 141-150. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2014.04.025

[16]. Lee, Y.; Jung, D. A brief performance comparison of R1234yf, R1234ze(E), and R134a in a vapor compression cycle. Korean J. Air-Cond. Refrig. Eng., 2012, 24, 453-459.

[17]. Wang, X.; Amrane, K. AHR1 low-GWP alternative refrigerant evaluation program. Sci. Technol. Built Environ., 2015, 21, 499-507. DOI: 10.1080/23744731.2015.1029729

[18]. Celen, A.; et al. A review of nanorefrigerants: flow characteristics and applications. Int. J. Refrig., 2014, 44, 125-140. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2014.04.021

[19]. Kasaeian, A.; et al. Applications of eco-friendly refrigerants and nanorefrigerants: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2018, 96, 91-99. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.048

[20]. Eastman, J.A.; et al. Enhanced thermal conductivity through the development of nanofluids. Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 1996, 457, 3-11. DOI: 10.1557/PROC-457-3

[21]. Jiang, W.; Ding, G.; Peng, H. Measurement and model on thermal conductivities of carbon nanotube nanorefrigerant. Int. J. Therm. Sci., 2009, 48, 1108-1115. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2008.10.003

[22]. Kedzierski, M.A. Effect of CuO nanoparticle concentration on R134a/lubricant pool-boiling heat transfer. J. Heat Transf., 2009, 131(4), 043205. DOI: 10.1115/1.3072912

[23]. Bi, S.; Shi, L.; Zhang, L. Performance study on domestic refrigerator using R134a/mineral oil/nano TiO₂ as working fluid. Int. J. Refrig., 2008, 31, 1443-1448. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.05.003

[24]. Subramani, N.; Prakash, M.J. Experimental studies on a vapour compression system using nanorefrigerants. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol., 2011, 3(9), 95-102.

[25]. Subramani, N.; Prakash, M.J.; Parthiban, V. Experimental investigation on performance of a VCR system using Al₂O₃-R290 nanorefrigerant. Int. J. Ambient Energy, 2015, 36(4), 189-196. DOI: 10.1080/01430750.2013.852138

[26]. Jiang, P.; et al. Experimental investigation on the performance of a household refrigerator using CNT-based nanorefrigerant. Appl. Therm. Eng., 2014, 73(1), 133-139. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.07.009

[27]. Bi, S.; Guo, K.; Liu, Z. Performance of domestic refrigerator using TiO₂-R600a nanorefrigerant as working fluid. Energy Convers. Manag., 2011, 52(1), 733-737. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2010.07.052

[28]. Kedzierski, M.A. Effect of nanoparticle aggregation on nanorefrigerant thermal conductivity. Int. J. Refrig., 2019, 98, 234-245. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2018.10.025

[29]. Misra, R.S. Energy-exergy performance comparison of vapour compression refrigeration systems using R-1234yf and R-1234ze with nano materials. Int. J. Adv. Res. Innov., 2015, 3(4), 62-66. DOI: 10.51976/ijari.341511

[30]. Muriban, J.; Rizalman, M.; Prayogo, G.S.; Japri, M.Z. Performance enhancement of R-1234ze(E) in automotive air-conditioning system with graphene nanoplatelets/polyol ester nanolubricant. Appl. Therm. Eng., 2026, 289(3), 1-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2026.01.001

[31]. Akhayere, E.; Adebayo, V.; Adedeji, M.; Abid, M.; Kavaz, D.; Dagbasi, M. Investigating the effects of nanorefrigerants in a cascaded vapor compression refrigeration cycle. Int. J. Energy Environ. Eng., 2022, 14, 601-612. DOI: 10.1007/s40095-022-00512-4

[32]. Ravi, G.; Adhimoulame, K. Thermodynamics studies on VCRs using refrigerant blends of R290, R600A, and R1234ZE. Multiscale Multidiscip. Model. Exp. Des., 2024, 7, 4807-4818. DOI: 10.1007/s41939-024-00456-2

[33]. Kedzierski, M.A.; Brzozowski, T. R1234yf and R1234ze(E) nanolubricant heat transfer. Int. J. Refrig., 2017, 81, 100-110. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2017.05.025 (Source: manuscript)

[34]. Moffat, R.J. Describing the uncertainties in experimental results. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 1988, 1(1), 3-17.

[35]. Hamilton, R.L.; Crosser, O.K. Thermal conductivity of heterogeneous two-component systems. Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam., 1962, 1(3), 187-191. DOI: 10.1021/i160003a005

[36]. Einstein, A. Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen. Ann. Phys., 1906, 324(2), 289-306. DOI: 10.1002/andp.19063240204

[37]. Batchelor, G.K. The effect of Brownian motion on the bulk stress in a suspension of spherical particles. J. Fluid Mech., 1977, 83(1), 97-117. DOI: 10.1017/S0022112077001062

[38]. Pak, B.C.; Cho, Y.I. Hydrodynamic and heat transfer study of dispersed fluids with submicron metallic oxide particles. Exp. Heat Transf., 1998, 11(2), 151-170. DOI: 10.1080/08916159808946559 (Source: manuscript)

[39]. Dincer, I.; Kanoglu, M. Refrigeration Systems and Applications. 2nd ed. Wiley, 2010. DOI: 10.1002/9780470665167

[40]. Arora, A.; Kaushik, S.C. Theoretical analysis of a vapour compression refrigeration system with R502, R404A and R507A. Int. J. Refrig., 2008, 31(6), 998-1005. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.02.001

[41]. Yumrutas, R.; Kunduz, M.; Kanoğlu, M. Exergy analysis of vapor compression refrigeration systems. Exergy Int. J., 2002, 2(4), 266-272. DOI: 10.1016/S1164-0235(02)00078-0

[42]. Ahamed, J.U.; Saidur, R.; Masjuki, H.H. A review on exergy analysis of vapor compression refrigeration system. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2011, 15(3), 1593-1600. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.039

[43]. Reddy, V.S.; Panwar, N.L.; Kaushik, S.C. Exergetic analysis of a vapour compression refrigeration system with various refrigerants. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy, 2012, 14(1), 47-53. DOI: 10.1007/s10098-011-0372-9

[44]. Malwe, P.D.; Shaikh, J.; Gawali, B.S. Exergy assessment of a multistage multi-evaporator vapor compression refrigeration system using eighteen refrigerants. Energy Rep., 2022, 8, 153-162. DOI: 10.1016/j.egyr.2022.10.001

[45]. Malwe, P.D.; et al. Dynamic simulation and exergy analysis of an ORC integrated with vapor compression refrigeration system. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess., 2022, 53, 102684. DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102684

[46]. Ghosh, S.; et al. A review on the use of nano-refrigerants in domestic refrigeration systems for energy efficiency. Mater. Today: Proc., 2021, 46, 5441-5446. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.322

[47]. Rashidi, S.; et al. A review on the application of nanofluids in refrigeration systems. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim., 2020, 139, 3869-3885. DOI: 10.1007/s10973-019-08842-8

[48]. Gado, M.G.; Ookawara, S.; Nada, S.A. Energy and exergy analyses of a novel combined cooling, heating, and power system based on a low-GWP refrigerant. Energy Convers. Manag., 2021, 245, 114587. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114587

[49]. Mousavi, S.M.; et al. Towards net-zero emission in refrigeration systems: A review on low-GWP refrigerants and their performance enhancement techniques. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2022, 168, 112858. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112858

[50]. Gupta, A.; et al. Recent advances in graphene-based nanofluids for heat transfer applications: A critical review. J. Mol. Liq., 2024, 395, 123896. DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2023.123896

[51]. Kumar, R.; Singh, J. Experimental investigation of a vapor compression refrigeration system using R1234ze(E) with TiO₂ and SiO₂ nanoparticles. Arab. J. Sci. Eng., 2025, 50, 4567-4580. DOI: 10.1007/s13369-024-08976-3

[52]. Zhang, Y.; Wang, L. Numerical study on the performance of a cascade refrigeration system with R1234ze(E)/R134a nanorefrigerant. Energy, 2024, 289, 130456. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2024.130456

[53]. Chen, H.; et al. Thermodynamic analysis of low-GWP refrigerants as R134a replacements in automotive air conditioning systems. Appl. Therm. Eng., 2024, 236, 121789. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121789

[54]. Ding, G.; Peng, H.; Jiang, W.; Gao, Y. The migration characteristics of nanoparticles in the pool boiling process of nanorefrigerant and nanorefrigerant-oil mixture. Int. J. Refrig., 2009, 32(1), 114-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2008.07.006

[55]. Peng, H.; Ding, G.; Hu, H. Effect of surfactant additives on nucleate pool boiling heat transfer of refrigerant-based nanofluid. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 2011, 35(6), 960-970. DOI: 10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2011.01.016

[56]. Mahbubul, I.M.; Saidur, R.; Amalina, M.A. Influence of particle concentration and temperature on thermal conductivity and viscosity of Al₂O₃/R141b nanorefrigerant. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf., 2013, 43, 100-104. DOI: 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.01.010

[57]. Peng, H.; Ding, G.; Jiang, W. Influence of carbon nanotubes on nucleate pool boiling heat transfer characteristics of refrigerant-oil mixture. Int. J. Therm. Sci., 2010, 49(12), 2428-2435. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2010.08.003

[58]. Park, K.J.; Jung, D.S. Thermodynamic performance of HCFC22 alternative refrigerants for residential air-conditioning applications. Energy Build., 2007, 39, 675-680. DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.09.010

[59]. Sekhar, S.J.; Lal, D.M. HFC134a/HC600a/HC290 mixture a retrofit for CFC12 systems. Int. J. Refrig., 2005, 28, 735-743. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2004.10.003

[60]. Qiu, G.; Meng, X.; Wu, J. Density measurements for 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (R1234yf) and trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (R1234zeE). J. Chem. Thermodyn., 2013, 60, 150-158. DOI: 10.1016/j.jct.2013.01.014

[61]. He, M.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, C.; Duan, Y. Estimating the viscosity of pure refrigerants and their mixtures by free-volume theory. Int. J. Refrig., 2015, 54, 55-63. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2015.02.015

[62]. Sun, Z.; Wang, Q.; Xie, G.; Liu, Z. Performance comparison of R1234ze(E) and R134a in a vapor compression refrigeration system. Int. J. Refrig., 2019, 101, 23-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2019.02.002